| General Information: |
| Title: | Breeding records of 325 bird species from Peru over 21 years based on citizen science data |
| Identifier: | ERDP-2024-07.1.2 |
| Abstract: |
Breeding is a key component of the life history of birds. Documenting diverse aspects of their breeding biology provides valuable natural history data that can be used to address questions of evolutionary, ecological, or conservation significance. Despite its importance, this information is scarce for most Neotropical species. We compiled 1,180 breeding records corresponding to 325 bird species for the period 2000-2021, through an in-depth review of photo or video records from Peru, sourced from Macaulay Library and iNaturalist platforms. We determined the geographical distribution of the breeding records, described patterns of activity and nesting behavior (i.e., host plant preference and clutch size), and explored the timing of breeding. Our study represents one of the few efforts to provide nationwide data on breeding birds in the Neotropical region. We also offer broad taxonomic coverage for further studies interested in testing hypotheses on the variation of reproductive traits and timing at both local and regional scales.
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Involved Parties
| Data Set Owners: |
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Individual: | Alexis Díaz |
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Organization: | Department of Biology, University of Miami / División de Ornitología, Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) / Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal (UNFV) |
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Address: |
| Coral Gables, |
| Florida USA |
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Email Address:
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| Data Set Contacts: |
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Individual: | Alexis Díaz |
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Organization: | Department of Biology, University of Miami / División de Ornitología, Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) / Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal (UNFV) |
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Address: |
| Coral Gables, |
| Florida USA |
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Email Address:
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| Associated Parties: |
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Individual: | Alexis Díaz |
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Organization: | Department of Biology, University of Miami / División de Ornitología, Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) / Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal (UNFV) |
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Address: |
| Coral Gables, |
| Florida USA |
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Email Address:
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Individual: | Edson Amanqui |
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Organization: | División de Ornitología, Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI)/Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal (UNFV) |
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Address: |
| Surco / El Agustino, Lima Perú |
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Individual: | Keyko Geraldy Saravia-Llaja |
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Organization: | Observatorio de Aves Loreto (LBO) |
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Individual: | Jhon Raúl Mandujano Collantes |
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Organization: | Observatorio de Aves Loreto (LBO) |
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Address: |
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Individual: | Mirian Jiménez |
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Organization: | Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Altiplano de Puno (UNAP) |
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Address: |
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Individual: | Ricardo Zárate-Gómez |
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Organization: | Dirección de investigación en Sociedades Amazónicas, Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana (IIAP) |
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Individual: | Florangel Condo |
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Organization: | Escuela de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemática, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal (UNFV) / División de Ecología Vegetal, Centro de Ornitología y Biodiversidad (CORBIDI) |
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Address: |
| El Agustino / Surco, Lima Perú |
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Data Set Characteristics
| Geographic Region: |
| Geographic Description: | The entire territory of Peru |
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Bounding Coordinates:
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| West: | -81.3099197187 degrees
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| East: | -68.6521959704 degrees
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| North: | -0.0373055573902 degrees
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| South: | -18.3495561917 degrees
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Sampling, Processing and Quality Control Methods
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Step by Step Procedures
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| Step 1: |
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Description:
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Preparation of citizen science datasets
Our study gathered evidence of bird breeding activity across all 24 departments of Peru, from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2021. We utilized only records accompanied by photos or videos sourced from eBird's Macaulay Library and the iNaturalist portals, selecting only observations of 'confirmed' and 'research grade' status. Both datasets were downloaded on 15 July 2022. We meticulously reviewed photographic and video records to reliably document aspects of breeding biology, removed duplicate records within and between portals, and corroborate identification of bird species, as described by Díaz et al. (2023). Breeding data from both portals were then combined into a single database. The scientific and English names of birds in the database were independently aligned with both the taxonomical classification of the eBird/Clements Checklist of Birds of the World v2023 (Clements et al., 2023), and the South American Classification Committee (Remsen et al., 2024). When possible, descriptions include information on parental and young behavior, using the age terminology for birds as established by Wood (1946). These terms are defined as follows: 'nestling', a bird not yet ready to leave the nest; 'fledgling', a bird that is preparing to leave the nest with its initial flight feathers but is still dependent on parental care; 'juvenile', an independent bird in its first plumage of non-downy feathers; and 'immature', a bird in any non-adult plumage stage. However, we excluded 'juveniles' and 'immature' birds from the breeding records to ensure our data capture events closely tied in time and location to actual mating behavior (Díaz et al. 2023).
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| Step 2: |
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Description:
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Geographic distribution of breeding records
Since the datasets from these citizen science portals did not provide information about administrative locations (district and province), we overlaid observations (based on their reported latitude/longitude) with a Peruvian district shapefile retrieved from Geo GPS Perú (2014), using QGIS 2.14 (Quantum GIS Development, 2016). After filtering the breeding records, we further overlaid these observations with an ecosystem map of Peru provided by the Ministerio del Ambiente (2019). The construction of this map was based on vegetation cover, bioclimate, physiography, and ecological tiers, enabling the classification of records into four main natural regions: the ‘Selva Tropical’, the ‘Yunga’, the ‘Andes’, and the ‘Costa’. It also covered 34 terrestrial and two aquatic ecosystems, as well as seven intervened areas within these regions. For more details, see Ministerio del Ambiente (2019) and Tovar (2018). However, given that the aquatic ecosystems and intervened areas can be located in any of the main four natural regions, we have further specified their region of origin in our compiled database. Additionally, we scrutinized unique iNaturalist breeding records for inaccuracies in descriptions, particularly those with positional accuracy exceeding 10,000 meters, and contacted the authors of these records for additional details through the same portal. If we were unable to obtain the required information, we excluded those records from our analysis.
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| Step 3: |
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Description:
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Patterns of breeding activity and nesting behavior
We classified patterns of breeding activity into 12 categories: courtship or copulation (C), brood patch (BP), active nest at unknown stage (AN), adult carrying nesting material (CN), nest building (NB), occupied nest (ON), nest with egg (NE), adult carrying food for young (CF), adult carrying fecal sac (FS), nestling (N), feeding young (FY), and recently fledged young (FL). We considered evidence of breeding for all bird species. However, we did not consider instances where adult birds of specific species, such as parrots, owls, miners, horneros, swallows, and wrens, were spotted in burrows, cavities, holes, or spherical nests unless accompanied by undeniable evidence of breeding. This exclusion reflects the understanding that these species can utilize these locations not only for nesting but also for roosting (Díaz et al. 2023).
Host plants supporting nesting birds were identified, when possible, to the finest possible taxonomic resolution, referring to specialized texts and identification guides (Brako & Zarucchi, 1993; Vásquez, 1997; García & Gastañeta, 2008; Vásquez et al., 2010; Aquino et al., 2018), and through consultations with botany specialists. This identification process, applicable to a wide range of breeding activity categories, such as AN, CN, NB, ON, NE, CF, FS, and N, excluded images where poor focus or inadequate zoom impeded accurate plant species identification. Lastly, the clutch size of nesting birds was inferred, when possible, and relied exclusively on records classified under the NE category.
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| Step 4: |
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Description:
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Timing of breeding activity
We examined the temporal distribution of breeding records by month throughout the year, further categorizing them by their latitudinal locations in the north, center, and south of each of the four main natural regions previously mentioned, to provide a fine-scale overview. The months in which breeding occurred were then compared with preliminary data for each latitudinal transect to identify coincidences, improvements, or discrepancies in temporal patterns using the criteria by Verea et al. (2009). This framework categorizes the timing of breeding as 'coincident' if it aligns precisely or falls within a known breeding period, 'improved' if new or extended breeding activity is noted, and 'noncoincident' when there is no overlap. We focused on species showing at least four continuous months of breeding activity, correlating this data with the local climatic seasons for each transect (e.g., rainy vs. less rainy season). Additionally, species breeding for nine or more months were classified as capable of year-round breeding.
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| Step 5: |
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Description:
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Preliminary analysis
A total of 228,965 bird species records, including photographs from the Macaulay Library (187,761 records) and iNaturalist observations (41,204 records), were examined for this study. Only 0.5% of these records (n=1,180) contained photographs or videos with sufficient evidence to assess breeding status (Fig. 1). Of the breeding records, 911 were exclusive to the Macaulay Library, 216 were exclusive to iNaturalist, and 53 were shared between both portals. Breeding records for 325 species were retrieved, representing 19.6% of the total bird species known to breed in the country (1,655 species; Remsen et al., 2024).
Geographic distribution of breeding records
We recovered breeding records from the four main natural regions and the 24 administrative Departments of Peru. The 'Costa' (46.2%; n=545) and the 'Andes' regions (22.0%; n=260) had the highest number of records, with the Departments of Lima (n=396) and Arequipa (n=60) recording the most from each region, respectively. Breeding records from the 'Yunga' and the 'Selva Tropical' represented 15.5% (n=183) and 16.2% (n=192) of the total breeding records, with the Departments of Cuzco (n=96) and Madre de Dios (n=84) recording the most in each region. 'Humedal costero' (48.3%; n=263), 'Lago y laguna' (18.5%; n=48), 'Bosque montano de Yunga' (35.0%; n=64), and 'Bosque aluvial inundable' (38.0%; n=73) were the ecosystems with the most breeding records for the 'Costa', 'Andes', 'Yunga', and 'Selva Tropical' regions, respectively (Fig. 2). The American Oystercatcher (Haematopus palliatus) and the Andean Goose (Oressochen melanopterus) were the species with the most records contributed to the 'Costa' and the 'Andes' regions, representing 17.8% (n=97) and 11.5% (n=30) of the total breeding records from each region, respectively. The Andean Cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruvianus) and the Hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) had the most records contributed to the 'Yunga' and the 'Selva Tropical' regions, representing 8.7% (n=16) and 9.4% (n=18) of the total breeding records from each region, respectively.
Patterns of breeding activity and nesting behavior
The category ‘recently fledged young’ was the most abundant type of breeding activity, accounting for 44.3% (n=523) of the total breeding records. Moreover, when combined, all types of nesting records accounted for 44.5% (n=525) of the total breeding records. The top three categories with the most records were 'occupied nest' (n=195), 'adult carrying nesting material' (n=109), and 'nest with eggs' (n=101). We were able to identify 124 host plant nesting records, corresponding to three plant divisions: Bryophyta (n=1), Pteridophyta (n=1), and Magnoliophyta (n=122). From the latter subdivision, we could further identify 40 families, 45 genera, and 24 species. Fabaceae (n=25) and Euphorbiaceae (n=12) were the most abundant families; Polylepis sp. (n=4) and Vachellia sp. (n=4) were the most abundant identified genera; and Austrocylindropuntia subulata (n=2) and Schinus terebinthifolius (n=2) were the most abundant identified species. We could infer information about clutch size for 91% (n=90) of the total records under the category 'nest with eggs'.
Timing of breeding activity
The temporal distribution of compiled breeding records per year is shown in Fig. 3. The number of breeding records hosted on citizen science platforms has collectively increased exponentially, reaching more than 150 records per year since 2018. The monthly frequency of breeding records for each species, within each latitudinal transect from each natural region, is shown in the Supporting Information (Tables S1-12). Overall, breeding records across regions showed distinct temporal patterns: in the 'Selva Tropical' and 'Yunga' regions, breeding records for many species aligned with the onset of the rainy season. In the 'Andes,' the distribution extended from the late rainy season through to the dry season, and up to the onset of the rainy season, moving from north to south. Conversely, in the 'Costa' region, breeding was predominantly during the warm season, regardless of the concurrent wet or dry conditions across the different latitudinal transects.
It is important to highlight that determining the reproductive seasonality for a significant number of bird species was not possible due to the irregular and arbitrary nature of the observation dates and a low individual sample size. However, this temporal bias can be overcome through future efforts in crowdsourcing campaigns on citizen science platforms. These records can also complement future data obtained through more traditional methods, including the capture of living individuals and the examination of museum specimens. Breeding data can also be associated with other basic aspects of bird natural history, including molt patterns, habitat preferences, and population dynamics, across the proposed latitudinal transects within the main natural regions of Peru (Nolazco & Roper, 2009; Díaz et al., 2020; Díaz et al., 2022, Rivas-Fuenzalida et al., 2023)
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Data Set Usage Rights
| This dataset is provided under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CCBY-NC 4.0; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/deed.en). |
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